Effects of Roughness on Hypersonic Boundary-Layer Transition

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Developing mechanism-based methods for estimating hypersonic boundary-layer transition in flight: The role of quiet tunnels (2013, background): “Roughness can have many different effects on hypersonic transition, depending on the properties of the mean flow and the smooth-wall instabilities [14, 15].”
Laminar–turbulent transition induced by a discrete roughness element in a supersonic boundary layer (2013, background): “…layers can be greatly modified by the presence of localized or distributed roughness, leading to a significant acceleration of the transition process both in noisy and in quiet environments (Tani & Sato 1956; Klebanoff & Tidstrom 1972; Corke, Bar-Server & Morkovin 1986; Fujii 2006; Schneider 2008).”
Development of Hypersonic Quiet Tunnels (2008, methodology): “Here, Rek is a Reynolds number based on the roughness height k and conditions in the undisturbed laminar boundary layer at the roughness height [13].”