Engineering of nanostructured carbon materials with electron or ion beams.

By A. Krasheninnikov, F. Banhart. Nature Materials, 2007

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Primary radiation damage: A review of current understanding and models (2018, background): “The reconstruction leads to a variety of new morphologies of graphitic materials, that can be induced by careful irradiation at elevated temperatures [178].”
Emergence of magnetism in graphene materials and nanostructures (2010, background): “…of defects due to electron stopping, i.e. the process involving possible electronic excitations and ionization of individual atoms, is less important in carbon materials since electronic excitations in metals are delocalized and quench instantly (Banhart, 1999; Krasheninnikov and Banhart, 2007).”
Structural defects in graphene. (2011, background): “Irradiation of graphene with electrons or ions can generate point defects due to the ballistic ejection of carbon atoms.(35,85,86) As mentioned above, the threshold energy of approximately 18 20 eV has to be transferred to a carbon atom to leave its lattice site.”
Fracture of graphene: a review (2015, background): “Irradiation with electron or ion beams is another way to tune the physical and mechanical properties of nanostructures (Krasheninnikov and Banhart 2007; Teweldebrhan and Balandin 2009; Lehtinen et al. 2011).”