Matched designs and causal diagrams.

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Limitations of individual causal models, causal graphs, and ignorability assumptions, as illustrated by random confounding and design unfaithfulness (2015, background): “There are also study designs that produce exact unfaithfulness, such as balanced matched-cohort studies, in which selection paths are used to cancel confounding paths [15]; in these settings unfaithfulness is a consequence of the data-generating process and thus a stable feature of the system.”