Probing the internal structure of reverse osmosis membranes by positron annihilation spectroscopy: Gaining more insight into the transport of water and small solutes

By Takahiro Fujioka, N. Oshima, R. Suzuki, W. Price, L. Nghiem. 2015

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A review of polymeric membranes and processes for potable water reuse. (2018, methodology): “[59] reviewed positron annihilation spectroscopy and found that, for various RO membranes, free-volume holes (referred to as network holes in Figure 5) in the active layer have been measured in the range of 0.”