Inhomogeneous swelling of a gel in equilibrium with a solvent and mechanical load

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A nonlinear, transient finite element method for coupled solvent diffusion and large deformation of hydrogels (2015, background): “Previously, finite element methods for equilibrium analyses of hydrogels have been developed (Hong et al., 2009a; Kang and Huang, 2010a), without considering the diffusion kinetics.”
Mechanics and chemical thermodynamics of phase transition in temperature-sensitive hydrogels (2011, background): “…recent development of the nonlinear field theory of hydrogels (e.g., Baek and Srinivasa, 2004; Dolbow et al., 2004; Hui and Muralidharan, 2005; Li et al., 2007; Hong et al., 2008, 2009, 2010; Doi, 2009; Marcombe et al., 2010; Chester and Anand, 2010; An et al., 2010; Baek and Pence, 2011).”
Large deformation and electrochemistry of polyelectrolyte gels (2010, unknown): “The hard materials constrain the swelling of the gels, often leading to inhomogeneous deformation even when the gel has reached equilibrium (Zhao et al., 2008; Hong et al., 2009).”
Advances in Mechanics of Soft Materials: A Review of Large Deformation Behavior of Hydrogels (2015, methodology): “Common subroutines used for equilibrium swelling include UHYPER [Ding et al., 2013; Hong et al., 2009a; Marcombe et al., 2010; Toh et al., 2014a], which models the equilibrium swelling of a gel as a hyperelastic material through a Legendre transformation; and UMAT [Ding et al., Under review; Kang…”