Evolution of resistance to Bt crops: directional selection in structured environments

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Experimental evolution of dispersal in spatiotemporally variable microcosms (2003, background): “Elevated dispersal has also been shown to encourage the evolution of pesticide resistance (Ives & Andow 2002; Carriere et al. 2003) and species range expansion (Gomulkiewicz et al. 1999; Kawecki 2000; Holt 2003).”
GENETICALLY ENGINEERED ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT: CURRENT STATUS AND RECOMMENDATIONS1 (2005, background): “For example, it may be possible to delay the evolution of resistance to Bt crops by maintaining large enough refuges (areas where non-Bt varieties of the crop are grown) so that selection for resistance is reduced (Andow and Ives 2002, Gould 1998, Ives and Andow 2002).”
Facilitating the evolution of resistance to avian malaria in Hawaiian birds (2006, background): “This is a result of the relatively low reproductive potential of the species considered here, especially compared to insects evolving resistance against pesticides (Ives and Andow, 2002; Tabashnik et al., 2004).”