ARCADE 2 MEASUREMENT OF THE ABSOLUTE SKY BRIGHTNESS AT 3–90 GHz

By D. Fixsen, Alan Kogut, S. Levin, M. Limon, Philip Lubin, P. Mirel, M. Seiffert, J. Singal, Edward J. Wollack, T. Villela and 1 more. Astrophysical Journal, 2009

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The ARCADE 2 instrument has measured the absolute temperature of the sky at frequencies 3, 8, 10, 30, and 90 GHz, using an open-aperture cryogenic instrument observing at balloon altitudes with no emissive windows between the beam-forming optics and the sky. An external blackbody calibrator provides an in situ reference. Systematic errors were greatly reduced by using differential radiometers and cooling all critical components to physical temperatures approximating the cosmic microwave background (CMB) temperature. A linear model is used to compare the output of each radiometer to a set of thermometers on the instrument. Small corrections are made for the residual emission from the flight train, balloon, atmosphere, and foreground Galactic emission. The ARCADE 2 data alone show an excess radio rise of 54 ± 6 mK at 3.3 GHz in addition to a CMB temperature of 2.731 ± 0.004 K. Combining the ARCADE 2 data with data from the literature shows an excess power-law spectrum of T = 24.1 ± 2.1 (K) (ν/ν0)−2.599 ± 0.036 from 22 MHz to 10 GHz (ν0 = 310 MHz) in addition to a CMB temperature of 2.725 ± 0.001 K.

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RESOLVING THE RADIO SOURCE BACKGROUND: DEEPER UNDERSTANDING THROUGH CONFUSION (2012, background): “Combining their 3.3 GHz result with low-frequency data from the literature led Fixsen et al. (2011) to fit the “excess” extragalactic background with a power-law spectrum Tb = (24.1± 2.1 K)× ( ν 310 MHz )−2.599±0.036 (4) between 22 MHz and 10 GHz.”
The evolution of CMB spectral distortions in the early Universe (2011, methodology): “…∆ρ(zs) , 0 makes a difference in the final effective temperature at the ending redshift,ze, that is well below the current limit of 1 mK for T0 (Fixsen et al. 2011), for consistent inclusion of the energy injection one should compute the initial effective temperature of the CMB byT∗γ = Tz […”
The VLA-COSMOS 3 GHz Large Project: Continuum data and source catalog release (2017, methodology): “…based on i) the previous Lockman hole observations at 1.4 GHz (Owen & Morrison 2008); and ii) a comparison of the sky brightness temperature measured by the ARCADE 2 experiment (Fixsen et al. 2011) with that derived from the integral of the observed radio source counts (Vernstrom et al. 2011).”
H i intensity mapping: a single dish approach (2012, methodology): “Before we continue, we note that there is evidence of an additional component to the sky brightness as measured by the ARCADE experiment at 3 GHz (Fixsen et al. 2011).”
CMB at 2 × 2 order: the dissipation of primordial acoustic waves and the observable part of the associated energy release (2012, background): “There is however substantial uncertainty in our understanding of foregrounds and possible systematics, as indicated by an observed excess signal at≃ 3 GHz by ARCADE (Fixsen et al. 2011), which is not completely explained by the current galactic and extragalactic emission models.”
The interstellar cosmic-ray electron spectrum from synchrotron radiation and direct measurements. (2011, methodology): “Gold et al. (2009) used WMAP 5-year data to derive 17 In a related ARCADE2 study, Fixsen et al. (2011) claim a 3−90 GHz extragalactic background about a factor 6 higher than expected from radio sources at 1 GHz.”
Enhanced Global Signal of Neutral Hydrogen Due to Excess Radiation at Cosmic Dawn (2018, background): “The excess fraction ξ is set to be unity (Fixsen et al. 2011) but given the fact that radio source counts can contribute to the background, we consider the excess fraction at early times as a free parameter.”
NINE-YEAR WILKINSON MICROWAVE ANISOTROPY PROBE (WMAP) OBSERVATIONS: FINAL MAPS AND RESULTS (2012, methodology): “We subtract the 2.725 K CMB monopole and an extragalactic contribution of 12.96 K, from the analysis of ARCADE 2 and other data by Fixsen et al. (2011).”