Glycine betaine: a versatile compound with great potential for gene pyramiding to improve crop plant performance against environmental stresses

By R. Ahmad, Chan Ju Lim, Suk-Yoon. Kwon. Plant Biotechnology Reports, 2012

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Roles of osmoprotectants in improving salinity and drought tolerance in plants: a review (2015, background): “In glycine- betaine biosynthetic pathway, GB is formed during two successive oxidation processes of choline via choline monooxygenase (CMO) and betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase, and whole reactions are performed in chloroplasts specially in stroma and catalyzed by CMO and NAD? dependent betaine aldehy”
Mechanism of Salinity Tolerance in Plants: Physiological, Biochemical, and Molecular Characterization (2014, background): “These two enzymes have overlapping functions as GSMT catalyses the first and the second step while SDMT catalyses the second and third step [63].”
Agricultural uses of plant biostimulants (2014, background): “Accumulation of glycine betaine and proline is generally correlated with increased stress tolerance and exogenous application of these compounds has been shown to enhance tolerance to abiotic stresses in a variety of higher plants including maize, barley, soybean, alfalfa and rice (Chen and Murata 2”