Dietary factors that affect the bioavailability of carotenoids.

By K. H. van het Hof, C. West, J. Weststrate, J. Hautvast. Journal of NutriLife, 2000

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Bioactivity and protective effects of natural carotenoids. (2005, background): “However, intake must be corrected for bioequivalence, evaluating what portion of the ingested provitamin A carotenoid is absorbed, cleaved, reduced and finally available as retinol or retinyl ester [12].”
Xanthophyll carotenoids are more bioaccessible from fruits than dark green vegetables (2007, background): “The difference in transfer of carotenoids from the digestate to micellar fraction from fruits and vegetables could be due to a number of factors including the location of carotenoids in the food matrix and the effect of food constituents [34].”