Observation of keyhole-mode laser melting in laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing

By Wayne E. King, H. Barth, Víctor Manuel Castillo, G. Gallegos, J. Gibbs, D. Hahn, Chandrika Kamath, A. Rubenchik. 2014

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Selective laser melting finite element modeling: Validation with high-speed imaging and lack of fusion defects prediction (2018, background): “However, one has to remember not to overcome the thermal energy input threshold that would create too many vaporization and produce the so-called “keyhole effect” which would generate porosity as well [35].”
An overview of powder granulometry on feedstock and part performance in the selective laser melting process (2017, background): “Vaporisation Laser fusion occurring at levels exceeding energy density thresholds could result in increased metal fluid evaporation beyond the material’s melting point, producing metallic vapour which facilitates plasma formation [44].”
Overview of modelling and simulation of metal powder bed fusion process at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (2015, methodology): “While the E-T model, given its simplicity, cannot predict the parameters for which the process would enter keyhole mode, we have observed this mode experimentally in our previous work and therefore wanted to avoid parameter combinations that resulted in deep melt pools.(66) For this problem, the las”
Additive manufacturing of metallic components – Process, structure and properties (2018, methodology): “16(d) shows keyhole porosity measured using Synchrotron Radiation micro-Tomography (SRlT) [182].”