Industrial ecology: a new field or only a metaphor?

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Toward a Resource‐Efficient Built Environment: A Literature Review and Conceptual Model (2017, background): “As explained by Ehrenfield (2004), most work in the IE field initially focused on the analysis of processes and flows, following the ecological metaphor (see also Boons and Baas 1997).”
Linking Industrial Ecology and Ecological Economics: A Theoretical and Empirical Foundation for the Circular Economy (2019, methodology): “Nature is employed as a model explicitly, or at least implicitly, phrased in terms of a natural ecosystem metaphor, and based on a proclaimed analogy between industrial systems and natural ecosystems (Isenmann 2008; Ehrenfeld 2004; Erkman 1997).”
Organizational Perspectives of Industrial Symbiosis (2015, background): “…are the IS system experts (Ashton, 2011; Costa & Ferrão, 2010; Doménech & Davies, 2011; Grant et al., 2010; Korhonen, Von Malmborg, Strachan, & Ehrenfeld, 2004; Yu, de Jong, et al., 2014) engaging in deeper reflective learning on their own environmental actions and impacts (Baas & Huisingh,…”