An overview on the current processes for the recycling of batteries

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A review of recovery of metals from industrial waste (2012, background): “The acid or base leaching of spent Ni-Cd batteries is carried out during hydrometallurgical recycling [51].”
A Critical Review of Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Processes from a Circular Economy Perspective (2019, methodology): “Other metals are lost to the slag phase and organic materials are burned [17,27].”
Recovery of Zn (II), Mn (II), Cd (II) and Ni (II) from the unsorted spent batteries using solvent extraction, electrodeposition and precipitation methods (2017, background): “Generally, existing processes for metal recycling from waste batteries have been only applied to a specific type of waste battery at laboratory scale (Bertuol et al., 2009; ) and at commercial scale (Espinosa et al., 2004) as mentioned previously.”
Extraction of lithium from primary and secondary sources by pre-treatment, leaching and separation: A comprehensive review (2014, background): “Though Toxco and Sony were the first to recycle LIBs which they still continue, several others also started processing such materials recently (Espinosa et al., 2004; Gaines and Cuenca, 2000; Li et al., 2009a).”