Empirical Evidence of Density- Dependence in Populations of Large Herbivores

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Relative influence of human harvest, carnivores, and weather on adult female elk survival across western North America (2013, background): “Data limitations also precluded us from assessing population density as a covariate, although, in ungulates, adult survival is less affected by density than is any other vital rate (Bonenfant et al. 2009).”
Life-History Characteristics of Mule Deer: Effects of Nutrition in a Variable Environment (2014, background): “…separate analyses for pregnancy status of yearlings (1.5-yr-old), and pregnancy status and litter sizes of females 2.5 years old to avoid having low or more variable reproduction by yearling females unduly influence models of agespecific reproduction (Gaillard et al. 2000, Bonenfant et al. 2009).”
Challenges and science-based implications for modern management and conservation of European ungulate populations (2017, neutral): “Ungulates are notoriously difficult to count (Morellet et al. 2007; Bonefant et al. 2009).”
Behavioural interference between ungulate species: roe are not on velvet with fallow deer (2011, background): “Predation (Sinclair et al. 2003), density dependence ( Bonenfant et al. 2009 ) and environmental conditions (Coulson et al. 2000) have been shown to influence the population dynamics of ungulates.”