Metrics for External Model Evaluation with an Application to the Population Pharmacokinetics of Gliclazide

By Karl Brendel, Emmanuelle Comets, C. Laffont, C. Laveille, France Mentré. Pharmaceutical Research, 2006

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Computing normalised prediction distribution errors to evaluate nonlinear mixed-effect models: The npde add-on package for R (2008, methodology): “npde do not involve any approximation of the model function and therefore have better properties [15].”
Diagnosing Model Diagnostics (2007, background): “A recent development in simulation-based diagnostics is the normalized prediction distribution error (NPDE), in which a reference distribution is created for each observation and correlations in residuals within a subject are taken into account”
Model Evaluation of Continuous Data Pharmacometric Models: Metrics and Graphics (2017, methodology): “A decorrelated version of pd, the prediction distribution error, has been proposed in order to enable the use of statistical tests.(6) The prediction distribution errors are computed in the same way of pd but from decorrelated (observed and simulated) data, obtained using Eq.”