Laminar-Turbulent Transition of a Low Reynolds Number Rigid or Flexible Airfoil

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Flapping Wing Aerodynamics: Progress and Challenges (2008, background): “Although there is a growing interest in modeling and understanding the physics of flexible wing flapping, current development is largely restricted to employing membranes in fixed wings [2,35], and this field of study remains largely unexplored.”
Aeromechanics of Membrane Wings with Implications for Animal Flight ArnoldSong, ∗ XiaodongTian, † EmilyIsraeli, ‡ RicardoGalvao, § KristinBishop, ¶ SharonSwartz, ∗∗ (2008, background): “Features that might be isolated include the use of low-aspect-ratio (LAR) wings, the thin compliant membrane lifting surface, and the low-Reynolds-number regime (Re < 2 10(5)), at which many complex aerodynamic phenomena, such as the transition to turbulence and laminar separation, are present, yet ”
Implicit Large Eddy Simulation of transition to turbulence at low Reynolds numbers using a Discontinuous Galerkin method (2011, methodology): “Tang [16] employs several models for RANS simulations, whereas Lian and Shyy [17] make use of the standard k− RANS model in conjunction with an eN transition module.”