Inward, Outward, and Upward: Cognitive Aspects of Prayer

By K. Ladd, B. Spilka. 2002

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Theoretical models of the nature of prayer and health: A review (2008, unknown): “…praise, attunement (Richards, 1991); examen, tears, relinquishment, suffering, radical, rest, meditative, contemplative, sacramental (Foster, 1992; Ladd & Spilka, 2002); listening (Goehring, 1995); supplication, intercession, reparation (McKinney & McKinney, 1999); and lamentation (Ameling, 2000).”
RESEARCH: "Measuring Private Prayer: Development, Validation, and Clinical Application of the Multidimensional Prayer Inventory" (2004, background): “Prayer is a complex, multidimensional construct (Ladd & Spilka, 2002; Levin & Taylor, 1997; Pargament, 1990) and has been described in many different ways (Finney & Maloney, 1985b; Giardini, 1987).”
Private Prayer and Civic Involvement (2005, background): “A recent study by Ladd and Spilka (2002) measured what people think about when they are praying.”
Can prayer increase gratitude (2009, background): “Some research has been done on different types of prayer and one that is frequently mentioned in research is a prayer of thanksgiving (e.g., Ladd & Spilka, 2002; Laird, Snyder, Rapoff, & Green, 2004).”
Listening and Human Communication in the 21st Century (2011, background): “Ladd and Spilka (2002) tested the idea that spiritual individuals practice focus of prayer by focusing upward (human with divine), inward (with oneself), and outward (human to human); but they did not find a dominating factor in the direction of prayer focus.”