Winter feeding of elk in Western North America

By Bruce L. Smith. 2001

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To feed or not to feed? Evidence of the intended and unintended effects of feeding wild ungulates (2014, background): “…yet can generate considerable income from the sale of hunting opportunities, trophies, or meat where it is legal (Gordon et al. 2004, Olaussen and Skonhoft 2011), as well as indirect revenue associated with selling hunting equipment, guiding services, food, fuel, or accommodation (Smith 2001).”
Roads and supplemental feeding affect home-range size of Slovenian red deer more than natural factors (2012, background): “Ungulates are frequently supplementally fed to increase their hunting value, improve winter survival, and reduce damage to agriculture and forestry caused by browsing and bark peeling (Putman and Staines 2004; Smith 2001).”
Supplementary winter feeding of wild red deer Cervus elaphus in Europe and North America: justifications, feeding practice and effectiveness (2004, background): “Smith (2001) reports a decline in summer recruitment rates in Grand Teton National Park (where half the wapiti from the National Elk Refuge in Jackson, Wyoming, spend the summer), since supplementary winter feeding began at the Jackson Refuge in 1990.”